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Ancient World Cultures I find it fascinating to explore ancient world cultures. For instance, when I want to take a break, I love to pour a fresh glass of carrot juice, sit in my special relaxation chair, and read about the formation, by Amenhotep IV, of a new Egyptian monotheistic religion dedicated to the worship of the sun. Or about how, in 750 A.D., Irish monks established early medieval art, of which survives the glorious illuminated "Book of Kells". There is a lot to know, so you had better get started now. Web:
Anglo-Saxons The Anglo-Saxon era was a period in English history from the 5th century to the Norman Conquest (1066). The Anglo-Saxons were the descendants of Germanic-speaking peoples -- the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes -- who migrated from the European continent in the 5th century after the weakening of Roman influence in England. The Anglo-Saxons dominated England until the arrival of William the Conqueror from Normandy (France). Web:
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Canadian Constitution Act The country of Canada was formally created in 1867 when the British parliament passed the British North America Act (also known as the Constitution Act), the legislation that created the independent country of Canada. The original country consisted of only four provinces: Ontario (Upper Canada), Quebec (Lower Canada), New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. It is interesting to read this document and compare it to the United States' Declaration of Independence and the United States' Constitution. The differences in the personalities of the two countries really show. Web:
Chinese History If you are interested in learning about human nature, you can't do better than to spend time reading about the longest, most enduring culture in the world. About one quarter of the people in the world live in China and, as such, live within a civilization that has evolved over more than 3,000 years. Being connected to the past in this way breeds an appreciation for tradition and long-term thinking that is simply unknown in Western countries. For this reason, I have always found the study of Chinese history to be humbling. After all, I live in Southern California, a place where history goes back about 150 years and anything over the age of 35 (including film stars) is considered an antique. Web:
Classical Studies Classical Studies (the Classics) encompass the Greek and Roman civilization and their direct antecedents. This area of study includes the Greek and Latin languages as well as their literature, art, architecture and archaeology. Web:
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Cold War Shortly after World War II, an intense economic and political struggle began between the Soviet Union (which was totalitarian and communist) and the Western powers (which were capitalistic and democratic). On April 16, 1947, the American financier Bernard Baruch made a speech to the South Carolina Legislature in which he commented, "Let us not be deceived. We are today in the midst of a cold war." The idea was popularized, and for the next four and a half decades, the term "Cold War" served as the defining paradigm of East/West relations. The Cold War was characterized by a world divided into capitalist and communist camps, leading to an enormous buildup of military strength, particularly nuclear weapons. In Europe, where the Soviet Union extended its influence over a large number of satellite countries, the psychological and political barrier between the two power blocs became known as the Iron Curtain. (Interesting Cold War trivia: Although the term "Iron Curtain" was introduced to the West in a speech by Winston Churchill in 1946, it was first used in an article written by the German Nazi leader Joseph Goebbels in 1945.) The most famous symbol of the Cold War was the Berlin Wall, a long barrier dividing East Berlin (controlled by the Russians) from West Berlin (part of the democratic Federal Republic of Germany). The Berlin Wall was erected in August 1961 and was demolished in 1989. The Cold War ended in 1991 with the breakup of the Soviet Union. Web:
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Council of Trent The Council of Trent was an ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic church. It was convened in 1545 by Pope Paul III to address the problems of the Protestant Reformation. The Council of Trent met sporadically until 1563, when it was concluded by Pope Pius IV. Throughout its active years, the Council of Trent was a major figure in the Catholic Reformation. The reforms -- which covered topics such as the Mass, the clergy, sacraments, scripture, relics, education and feasts -- formed a basis for modern Catholicism. Here are the texts and transcripts of the Council of Trent's canons and decrees. Web:
Eighteenth Century Resources Travel back in time, back to the 18th century: a kinder, gentler time before the invention of cellular phones, fax machines and pizza delivery. Instead of doing cool things like playing video games and watching talk shows, people of the 18th century had to be more culturally advanced and make great literature, art, architecture, music and philosophy. Explore the past. Right now. Web:
English Bill of Rights The English established their Bill of Rights in 1689. This document lessened the power of the throne and gave more power to the subjects of England. The Bill of Rights elevated the political stature of Parliament over that of the crown, gave civil and political rights to English subjects and stated that no Roman Catholic would rule England. The Bill of Rights was accepted by William III and Mary II after the Glorious Revolution, which ousted James II from the throne. You can read about this document that created a significant turning point in the history of England. Web:
European Texts and Documents Have you ever worried that you might run out of important historical documents to read? Well, relax. You are causing yourself unnecessary strain. There are lots of wonderful documents only a mouse click away. These sites, for example, have many European historical documents dating from medieval times to the present. As long as you have the Net, you will never run out of important European documents. Web:
Feudal Terms Feudalism was a form of social organization common in Western Europe from the fall of Charlemagne's empire (9th century) to the rise of the absolute French, Spanish and English monarchies (14th century and later). An exact definition of feudalism is hard to give, but you won't go far wrong if you think of it as a system with three main characteristics: strict social classes, law based on local customs, and land-holding dependent upon a fee. If you want to read or talk about things feudal, you will need the proper vocabulary, so here are online glossaries with a large number of feudal words, from "abbey" to "witen". Web:
Greece, Ancient When we talk about ancient Greece, we are not talking about an empire or even a specific country. Rather, we are referring to several hundred "city-states" that were populated by Greek-speaking people in ancient times. For the most part, these city-states were on the southern Balkan Peninsula (modern-day Greece and Macedonia). However the Greek culture was widespread, strongly influencing people throughout the entire Mediterranean region. The city-states -- the most famous of which was Athens -- flourished from 500 B.C. to 150 B.C. During that time, the Greeks created a golden age of culture that stands as a unique achievement in the history of mankind. Virtually every important aspect of human development can, in some way, trace its roots back to ancient Greece. To help you appreciate this, I have compiled a list of the most well-known of the ancient Greeks, along with their areas of achievement. Although your eyes may glaze over as you read it, just think about the significance of this list: that such a small part of the world could be so creative and so innovative at a time when there was no modern science, no universal education, and no high-speed communication. Philosophy: Anaximander, Aristotle, Archemedes, Democritus, Diogenes, Epictetus, Epicurus, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Plato, Protagoras, Socrates, Thales, Xenocrates, Xenophanes; Biography: Plutarch; Poetry: Anacreon, Apollonios Rhodios, Sappho, Theocritus; Drama: Aeschylus, Aristophanes, Euripides, Sophocles, Thespis; Mathematics: Euclid, Diophantus, Pythagoras, Zeno; Literature: Aesop, Homer; History: Herodotus, Thucydides; Medicine: Hippocrates; Astronomy: Hipparchus, Ptolemy, Thales. As accomplished as the ancient Greeks were, there was one area in which they did fail: political organization. Each of the city-states was administered separately and, among the states, there was a large variety of governments, ranging from absolute monarchies ruled by kings, to democracies in which the city's citizens were able to vote and to voice their opinions in a common assembly. The democracy of the Greeks, however, was not the democracy of today. Even Athens, which was the first great democracy in history, did not offer universal representation. For example, like all Greek cities, Athens had many slaves who were not allowed to vote or to express their opinion; nor, for that matter, were women of any class allowed to do so. Still, the invention of democracy was a significant achievement in Western culture, one that would influence the world for centuries to come. Not withstanding their achievements, the Greek city-states were ruled by so many disparate governments that they were not able to form a large political unit. Over the long run, this left the Greeks vulnerable to inter-city warfare, as well as to attack from foreigners. Eventually, many years of ongoing warfare significantly weakened the city-states and, between the years 150 B.C.-30 B.C., virtually all of Greece became subject to the rule of the Romans (who were able to form an efficient, centralized government). Web:
Hiroshima and Nagasaki It was the summer of 1945. The Allied forces which had defeated Germany now turned their full attention toward Japan and its massive war machine. Although the war in Europe was over, the Japanese had more than 2,000,000 soldiers and 9,000 kamikaze suicide bombers ready to fight to the death. It was estimated that a full-scale invasion of Japan would kill more than 500,000 American servicemen as well as many millions of Japanese. On July 26, the United States, Britain and China warned Japan to surrender unconditionally or face "prompt and utter destruction". Japanese officials stalled for time and scoffed at the demands. In response, U.S. President Harry Truman gave the order to drop an atomic bomb on Japan. On August 6, an atomic bomb was dropped on the bustling city of Hiroshima immediately killing 75,000 people (many more died later). Three days later, a second bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki killing another 50,000 people. On August 10, 1945 -- overruling the desires of its military leaders who wanted to keep fighting -- Japan finally surrendered. The dropping of the two bombs ended the war, saved millions of lives, and ushered in a new and terrifying era of human history. Web:
Historian's Database and Information Server Here is a wonderful, comprehensive information server for historians. You can browse through a wide variety of resources -- so large, in fact, that you'll be able to use this Web site as your one-stop history warehouse. Web:
Historical Sounds and Speeches The best way to learn about history is to read, think and discuss. You can add an interesting dimension to such work by listening to the original version of important speeches. We hear so many boring politicians and commentators talk that we forget that truly skillful orators can have a significant, enduring effect on our culture. These sites contain sound files of famous speeches as well as short excerpts, including some from John F. Kennedy, Richard Nixon, Adolf Hitler, Winston Churchill, Martin Luther King and Will Rogers. Try this experiment. Listen to a few seconds of Hitler addressing a crowd (in German of course), and then ask yourself, "Who does he remind me of?" Web:
History Resources Those who do not learn how to find history resources on the Net are doomed to repeat their searches. Don't let this happen to you. Start with these Web sites, and you will be only a few mouse clicks away from whatever you need. If you are going to be a historian, it is crucial to learn how to use the Web. My philosophy is, if you can't master the present, you won't be able to live in the past. Web:
History Talk and General Discussion The great thing about history is that you never run out of it. Every minute there is more history made and that just means there is more to memorize when you are in school. Stop in on the Net, and hang out with the people who love to dwell on the past. Usenet:
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Holocaust In 1933, Adolph Hitler came to power in Germany, beginning the age of German Nazism, which lasted until the end of World War II in 1945. Nazism fed on the fears, frustrations and prejudices of post-World War I Germans, and embraced a long-term program of political expansion, state control of the economy, and a fanatical nationalism based on the ideal of an Aryan master race coupled with vehemently anti-Semitic racism. Between 1933 and 1945, Germany, under the leadership of Hitler, began to persecute and exterminate Jews. The Nazis sent countless Jews to concentration camps (death camps). With the outbreak of World War II, Hitler and Heinrich Himmler, the head of the Gestapo (secret police), implemented a plan -- the "final solution of the Jewish question" -- to exterminate all the European Jews within their reach, a reach which expanded over much of Europe as the War progressed. By the end of the war, over 6 million Jews had been systematically rounded up, sent to concentration camps and murdered, resulting in the destruction of one of the most creative religious and secular communities in Europe, one of the most terrible chapters in human history: the Holocaust. Web:
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Holocaust Revisionism Revisionism is the act of changing the way people view a commonly accepted doctrine or series of events. For example, within a movie, a person may be portrayed as a popular hero when, in fact, he was not at all liked during his time. There are many styles of revisionism. Revision can occur from people feeling nostalgic and making "the old days" into a more romantic, endearing time than it was. Revision can also occur when people want to heighten or lessen, for whatever reason, the emotional impact of events from the past. One of the most dangerous revisionist practices today involves misguided people who attempt to deny the reality of the Holocaust, the period from 1933 to 1945, when over 6 million Jews were systematically murdered by Nazi Germany. Mankind has paid dearly for the Holocaust, and the lessons it has for us must never be forgotten. For this reason, it is important that educated people understand and refute the claims of the Holocaust revisionists. We must ensure that, as the memory of this most terrible era in history fades with each new generation, the significance of the Holocaust shall always be understood and appreciated. (After all, the next set of Nazis may be coming for you.) Web:
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Hyperhistory If you have some time to explore the Net, I suggest visiting this site. It has massive charts that show various historical and cultural happenings (science, politics, medicine, religion and more) juxtaposed so you can see how various events relate to one another. For example, did you know that the year the Pope announced that Catholics could not practice birth control was the same year that Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy were assassinated? Were you aware that the Berlin Wall was constructed in the same year that Yuri Garagin became the first man in space? And I bet you didn't know that Mussolini and Hitler formed the Rome-Berlin Axis around the same time Margaret Mitchell was writing "Gone with the Wind". This world history chart has lots of great information about people, events and history, and includes some cool maps. Web:
Joint Declaration on Peace Ireland has a long, complex history of unrest. In modern times, the main issue is that the Protestants in Northern Ireland (the Unionists) want to be associated with England, while the Catholics (the Republicans) want all of Ireland to be a completely independent country. The situation, however, dates from the 12th century, when Pope Adrian granted control of Ireland to King Henry II of England. This initiated a continuing Anglo-Irish conflict that worsened in the 16th century when England tried to impose Protestantism on the Irish population, which was largely Catholic. In 1800, English control was underscored by the Act of Union, which formally unified the English and Irish parliaments. This legislation created a great deal of political unrest in Ireland, resulting in a series of Home Rule bills, providing for increased Irish control of the country. These bills resulted in great animosity on both sides of the controversy (pro-British and pro-independence). On April 24, 1916 (Easter Monday), a small group of Irish patriots in Dublin led an assault on the British. The "Easter Rising", as it came to be called, lasted only six days before it was put down by British troops. However, it laid the groundwork for the independence of southern Ireland, as well as further decades of violence, unrest and political turmoil. After the Rising, the extreme nationalist political party Sein Fein ("Ourselves Alone") won most of the seats in the 1918 General Election, and the Irish Republican Army (IRA) was formed to fight the British administration. For years, the IRA led a hit-and-run assault on the British and as a result, in 1921, a treaty was negotiated dividing the country into two mostly self-governing areas: Northern Ireland (also called Ulster) and Southern Ireland (the Irish Free State). In 1937, the people of Southern Ireland passed a referendum declaring themselves completely independent, and in 1948, the Republic of Ireland Act officially recognized the country -- now called the Republic of Ireland or Eire -- as being separate from the British Commonwealth, bringing an end to hundreds of years of direct British influence. However, this did not bring an end to the violence and unrest. Northern Ireland, now a part of the United Kingdom, has a Protestant majority that generally favors the union with Britain. However, the Catholic minority in Northern Ireland would prefer to be part of the south, and there are still many people in both countries who are willing to fight for a completely unified and independent country. In 1993, a document was created as a new starting point in the peace process. This document, the Joint Declaration on Peace, was signed on December 15, 1993, by John Majors, the Prime Minister of England, and Albert Reynolds, the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) of the Republic of Ireland. On April 30, 2003, the two governments issued a second joint declaration, in an attempt to further the peace process. I think you'll find it interesting to read these documents: they are surprisingly easy to understand. Web:
Maastricht Treaty On February 7, 1992, the Treaty on European Union was signed, formally acknowledging the intentions of a number of European countries to form a political, monetary and social union. The treaty is generally known as the Maastricht Treaty, named after the city of Maastricht in southeast Holland where the meeting and signing took place. (The name is pronounced Mas'-trikt.) On November 1, 1993, the Maastricht Treaty was ratified, establishing the European Union (EU). The treaty is a complex document, but the main goals of the EU can be summarized as follows: (1) to create an economic and monetary union under the control of one central European bank; (2) to create a unified European market in which a single currency is used everywhere; (3) to ensure the unrestricted movement of people within the Union; (4) to create a common foreign and security policy; (5) to ensure cooperation among the member states with respect to justice and law enforcement; (6) to establish a European coal and steel community; (7) to establish a unified European atomic energy community; and (8) to strengthen the powers of the European Parliament. Although it all sounds simple (at least in principle), the European Union is actually a continuing work in progress, and many of the goals of the Maastricht Treaty have not yet been implemented completely. Web:
Magna Carta Feudalism was a political and social system in Western Europe that developed in the late 9th century and lasted until the rise of absolute monarchies. The feudal system centered upon the ownership of land and manors. The lord of the manor would allow peasants (serfs) to utilize his land for farming and for living. In exchange, the peasant was bound by an oath of fealty to pay money or to perform servile labor for the lord. Within the feudal system, the king owned all land. Under the king was a hierarchy of nobles (for example, barons) who would hold land granted by the king. Under the high nobles were lesser nobles who controlled land granted by the high nobles, and so on, each landowner swearing fealty to the noble above him (not unlike multilevel marketing). During the reign of King John (1199-1216) the barons revolted. They did so because of their strong opposition to the King's abuse of the feudal custom by encroaching on baronial privileges in order to raise money. To settle the rebellion, King John put his seal on the Magna Carta, which guaranteed rights to the subjects of England and generally precluded the excessive use of royal power. The Magna Carta is an interesting document to read, as it lays out what various members of the feudal system could and could not do. Web:
Medieval History Never mind that almost everyone was dirty, smelly, poor, and ate rotten food. Medieval history is cool because you got to fight with swords. Anyone who studies the culture and history of the medieval era can tell you that people were very different back then, as is evidenced by their politics, art, philosophy and religion. Scholars and students of the Middle Ages (476-1453 A.D.) discuss this period in history. Web:
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Renaissance The Renaissance (14th-15th century to mid-17th century) is the period in European history between the Middle Ages and modern times, during which there was an enormous development of Western civilization. The Renaissance began in Italy in the 14th century, and by the 15th century had spread to the rest of Europe. The Renaissance was a time of great creation in art, architecture and crafts. There were also important accomplishments in the areas of literature, science and scholarship. Politically, the Renaissance gave birth to the nation states and to a great surge in exploration. To this day, the term "Renaissance man" describes someone who is accomplished and well-versed in a variety of areas. Web:
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Roman Empire By tradition, the city of Rome (on the west coast of modern-day Italy) is said to have been founded by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus in the year 753 B.C. (The name Rome comes from "Romulus".) In actual fact, the beginnings of Rome, the city that would one day become the center of the known world, are shrouded in myth. What we do know is that, for a long time, Rome was a mere city-state, ruled by a succession of kings who were advised by a Senate (a body of appointed members). Around 500 B.C., the Roman government began to evolve. First, it changed to a republic that was governed by two "consuls", administrators who were elected annually by the Senate. Over time, however, the Roman Republic proved to be unstable, and senators, generals and dictators began to struggle for power. Eventually, one man, Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was able to consolidate control and become a full-fledged emperor, which stabilized the government. Upon his death (by assassination) another strong leader, Augustus Caesar (62 B.C.-14 A.D.), was able to take control, further cementing Roman stability. Over the next four centuries, Rome was ruled by a succession of emperors and, under their leadership, the Roman Empire grew enormously in size and influence. At its greatest extent, the empire encompassed the vast area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, as well as most of north-western Europe. Today, we consider the legacy of the ancient Romans to be their contributions to so many aspects of modern life: religion, philosophy, art, science, civil engineering, literature, architecture, music, and even the legal system. Indeed, it would not be an exaggeration to say that the culture of the Roman Empire was nothing less than the very basis of Western civilization. Still, no empire can last forever and, by the end of the fourth century A.D., Roman influence had weakened to the point where the empire was split into two parts: to the east, the Byzantine Empire, and to the west, the Western Roman Empire. Over the next half century, the Western Roman Empire was further weakened by barbarians who invaded from the north and the east. By 476 A.D., what was left of the great empire was so fragmented and impotent that the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was easily deposed by the Goths (a Germanic tribe), marking an ignoble end to the world's longest history of conquest, innovation, and achievement. Web:
Royalty From King Arthur to Princess Diana, we have always been fascinated with legends about royalty. For much of history, people were ruled by monarchs who achieved their divine rights by accident of birth. Today, there are only a handful of active monarchies in the world, but, if you believe the history books, there was a time when you couldn't walk to the next town without bumping into a king or queen. Today, the chances of meeting an actual member of a royal family are slight, but you can read about them whenever you want, and dream that, one day, your very own prince or princess will appear, and you will live happily ever after. Web:
Sixties A time of great transition is uncomfortable for the people living through that transition. When we look back on the Sixties through rose-colored granny glasses, we fondly remember all the sex, drugs and rock 'n' roll. What we sometimes forget is how turbulent the period actually was. The Sixties (or more precisely, the years from 1965 to 1975) hosted a cultural revolution, one as significant as the Reformation and the Renaissance. During the Sixties, many people fought for what we now take for granted. For example, young men had to fight to grow their hair long. (It was commonplace for boys to be sent home from school for wearing their hair over their ears.) At the same time, countless young men were being sent to Vietnam to fight (and die) in an ideological war against the spread of communism. The Sixties was a time when the world began to embrace the sexual revolution (birth control, the Pill), the women's movement, the drug culture, new music (the Beatles, Woodstock), and a radical change in fashion (miniskirts, bell bottoms, hair styles). I remember the feeling: we all knew we were living through very special times. We experienced an enormous increase in individual freedom and political idealism, while, at the same time, we watched the mass media, especially television, begin to shape the culture and exert a great deal of power over public opinion (something we take for granted today). While all this was happening, the focus of popular culture shifted from the older people to the kids, creating a youth culture that has since become the status quo. As we look back, we are now starting to understand what all the fuss was about and why it was so important. Without a doubt, we lived through interesting times. Sometimes I feel sorry for younger people. To tell you the truth, since the late Seventies, the world has been an awfully dull place. Web:
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Timelines What happened and when? With all the historical timelines on the Net, you'll never be at a loss for names, dates and places. For example, not many people know that the Tiahuanaco empire was founded in Peru about 375 A.D. (But now you do.) Web:
Titanic On the night of April 14, 1912, the British passenger liner Titanic, once thought to be invincible, sank in the North Atlantic. Since then, the Titanic disaster has become an enduring element of twentieth century folklore. When I was a young sprat at summer camp, we used to sing a folksong about the Titanic. ("...And the good Lord raised his hand/ Said the ship will never land/ It was sad when the great ship went down...") The good Lord notwithstanding, what brought the great ship down on its maiden voyage was an unexpected iceberg. As the ship began to sink, the 2,200 people aboard found out that there were not enough lifeboats, and, as a result, more than 1,500 people perished in the dark, icy water. The legend of the Titanic was resurrected in 1987, when the wreck itself was discovered, and again in 1997, when a maudlin, romanticized movie about the disaster rekindled interest in what is one of the oldest stories of mankind: what happens when hubris and poor planning encounter bad luck. Web:
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Universal Declaration of Human Rights On December 10, 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a document based on the U.S. Bill of Rights, France's Declaration of the Rights of Man, and England's Magna Carta. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was created to set a standard for human rights that all countries should meet. It stresses the dignity and worth of humanity, equal rights for men and women, and freedom as a right for everyone. The document was written primarily by René Cassin, a French public official who later (in 1968) won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in promoting human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is inspiring and well worth a look. Web:
Versailles Treaty of 1919 Over the centuries, there have been many treaties signed in Versailles. The most famous, however, is the treaty signed in 1919 that helped bring World War I to a close. Four world leaders -- the "Big Four" -- negotiated the treaty: President Wilson (United States), Premier Clemenceau (France), Prime Minister Lloyd George (Britain), and Premier Orlando (Italy). The treaty called for many actions, most of which were geared to strip Germany of its military, political and economic powers. The treaty's main resolutions placed limits on German armed forces, put into place a method for Germany to make enormous reparations, restored various cities and territories to their rightful owners, demilitarized the Rhineland, and created the League of Nations. Unfortunately, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were so punitive as to create enormous unrest in the German population. In the 1920s, the German economy suffered through a terrible decline and, combined with the resentment over the Treaty of Versailles, the economic suffering created an atmosphere in which Hitler was able to rise to power. What were the actual details of this treaty? See for yourself. Web:
Vietnam War The Vietnam War was a long, drawn-out affair, stretching from 1957 to 1975. In Washington, D.C., on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, you can see the names of 58,209 dead serviceman, and over 300,000 more who were wounded. As terrible as these numbers are, they are small compared to the dead and injured in Vietnam itself and in neighboring Laos and Cambodia. To anyone growing up in the Sixties, Vietnam was "The War". More than an actual conflict, it was a metaphor for the great mid-century life crisis that America and the world was to experience. It's hard to explain, even generally, what happened and why it was important. Suffice it to say that the Vietnam War finally convinced just about everyone that armed conflict is not a good way to settle differences. And by 1975, America finally started to realize that looking your enemy square in the face would most likely lead you to a reflection of yourself. Web:
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Vikings The Vikings were a seafaring people from Scandinavia, who flourished from the eighth to tenth century. By the late 700s, the Viking people were beginning to feel the effects of overpopulation and internal dissention. These problems, coupled with a cultural propensity for adventure and trade, started the Vikings on a long course of conquest, settlement and plundering that eventually led them as far abroad as the coasts of Europe, the British Isles, Greenland and even parts of America. In time, the Viking warriors were repulsed by the kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark and Norway (established after the introduction of Christianity), as well as the rise of strong European states. Today, the Vikings are remembered for their rich legacy: myths, legends and traditions. Web:
War Let's face it, war has been given a bum rap. Okay, so lots of people die, and many more suffer in horrible ways. Yes, families are broken up, and people are changed for the worse permanently. And, I guess, it is true that all kinds of property are damaged and destroyed, and huge amounts of money and resources are funneled away from socially productive uses and into a military machine. But are these necessarily negative things? Listen to some of the war discussion on Usenet. Then make up your own mind. Usenet:
Women's History Women's history involves two broad areas of study: (1) How ordinary women lived in different time periods, and (2) The study of important women and how their achievements have contributed to society. Anyone who explores women's history is going to learn a lot, because there is so much fascinating material that is not covered in traditional history courses. Web:
World War I World War I, also called the Great War, took place from 1914 to 1918. The war was fought between the Allies (principally England, France, Russia and, from 1917, the United States), and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey). The main causes of the war were the ambitions of the German Empire as well as the excessive nationalism of the European nations, especially within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The spark that started the hostilities occurred on June 28, 1914, when the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated at Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. Within weeks, Europe was involved in a war that would not end until November 11, 1918. In spite of the fact that there were no decisive battles, World War I was one of the bloodiest wars in history. In a four and a half year period, 10 million people were killed and more than 20 million were wounded. At the time, the Great War was looked upon as the war to end all wars. (My paternal grandfather, by the way, was a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian army. In 1916, he was captured by the Russians and sent to Russia as a prisoner of war to work on a farm. While there, he met and fell in love with the young woman who was to become my grandmother.) Web:
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World War II World War II was, by far, the most important conflict of the twentieth century. The war took place from 1939 to 1945, and was fought between the Allies (England, France, Russia, the United States and other countries) and the Axis (Germany, Italy and Japan). The main causes of World War II were the debilitating peace treaties forced on Germany after World War I, the economic suffering of the Great Depression of the 1930s, and the rise of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy and Japan. The German leader, Adolf Hitler, spent years building a military dictatorship and, on September 1, 1939, invaded Poland, whereupon England and France declared war on Germany. On December 7, 1941, the United States entered the war, after the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, was bombed by Japan. The war in Europe ended on May 7, 1945, with the surrender of Germany. The war in the Pacific ended in August 14, 1945, shortly after the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. World War II involved every major power in the world, and was the most expensive war in history. In the U.S. alone, the cost was $816,300,000,000 (in 1967 dollars), more than twice as much as the combined cost of the Vietnam War, the Korean War, World War I, the Civil War and the Spanish-American War ($407,100,000,000). Web:
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World War II Propaganda Posters Have you ever wondered what would inspire thousands and thousands of people to voluntarily march off to a big war far from home? Here's one of the answers: massive government propaganda. Examine these posters that were commissioned by government agencies to stir up the patriotism and sentiment of the American people during World War II. The posters, which are beautifully crafted (some by famous artists such as Norman Rockwell and Thomas Hart Benton), encourage men and women to enlist in the armed services, women to join the work force, and everyone to work hard, conserve resources, and keep secrets from the enemy. Web:
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