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Aesthetics Aesthetics is the area of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty, for example, as it is expressed within the fine arts. As you might imagine, such topics quickly enter the realm of the nature of art and artistic judgment (and, if you are a Kantian, perception as well). Plato and Aristotle both said that beauty is inherent in an object, and, thus, may be judged objectively. Hume, on the other hand, felt that whatever pleased the observer was beautiful. My opinion is somewhere in between. I feel about beauty the same way U.S. Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart feels about pornography: I may not be able to define it, but I know it when I see it. Web:
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Chinese Philosophy Chinese philosophy is, historically, considered within the bounds of three specific epochs: the Classical Age (6th century B.C. to 2nd century B.C.), the Medieval Age (2nd century B.C. to 11th century A.D.), and the Modern Age (11th century A.D. to the present). As you might imagine, there are a wide variety of philosophical traditions. However, in Western terms, it is possible to distinguish three distinct traits that are characteristic of Chinese philosophy: an emphasis on logical thinking (rationalism), the importance of human beings and their values (humanism), and the fusion of differing belief systems (syncretism). Web:
Ethics Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with moral principles, standards of conduct, and social obligations. Society believes that it is the mark of a normal person to be able to distinguish between right and wrong, but who gets to decide what's right and what's wrong? Plato was convinced that there was an absolute good to which human beings could aspire. (But then, even his best friends couldn't deny that Plato was somewhat of a dreamer.) Aristotle, on the other hand, saw moral virtue as the mean between extremes (the dancing on the fence theory). Ethics have always been one of the favorite topics of philosophers, and there is a lot of ethical thought on the Net for you to enjoy. So check out these Web sites: it's the right thing to do. Web:
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Existentialism Existentialism may seem abstract, but it is actually a highly utilitarian philosophy. Existentialism sees human existence as being fundamentally unexplainable. As individuals, we are isolated from a universe that is at once hostile and indifferent. On the other hand, we are responsible for our own choices, and we do have the freedom to act as we want. Thus, existentialism is the perfect philosophy for teenagers and for people writing essays about twentieth-century French literature. Web:
Greek Philosophy The history of Western philosophy starts at about 600 B.C. with the Greeks. Classical Greek philosophy provides the underpinnings for much of our modern civilization and how we approach thinking about life. Greek philosophy was especially concerned with two main areas: the nature of reality, and the idea of virtue and how it should be applied to politics. What I find interesting is that today we still greatly concern ourselves with the nature of reality, but, for some reason, we seem not to care so much about ideals of virtue and how they should be applied to politics. For this reason, I feel it is especially enlightening to read the works of Aristotle, Socrates, Plato and the other Greek philosophers to whom we owe so much of our heritage. Web:
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Humanism and Secular Humanism The term "humanism" can be difficult to understand, because it is used in different ways. In its oldest sense, "humanism" describes the philosophy of influential thinkers of the 14th through mid-17th centuries, who studied the languages and culture of ancient Greece and Rome. The humanists advocated a deliberate return to classical ideals and, in doing so, became the intellectual leaders of the Renaissance. Although they were religious, the humanists were more interested in using the rediscovered grandeur of Greece and Rome to make life better and more sensible, than in spending their time solving esoteric theological problems. It was the humanists who tried to reform the Roman Catholic Church and then, when that failed, provided the intellectual fuel for the Reformation and the creation of the first Protestant churches. Today, the term "humanism" is used in a different sense: to describe a philosophy that asserts life should be based on the potential of human nature, rather than on religious or supernatural beliefs. Although the doctrine of humanism is easy to state, interpreting it is a slippery experience. In fact, modern philosophers distinguish between a number of different types of humanism, of which I will discuss two, secular humanism and religious humanism. Secular humanists value knowledge based on reason, fact and science, rather than on blind faith and superstition. Although this world view has its roots in the rationalism of the 18th century and the free thought movement of the 19th century, secular humanism as a distinct movement dates only from 1933. It was in this year that the "Humanist Manifesto", a set of philosophical principles was first published. (In 1973, these principles were updated as the "Humanist Manifesto II"). As described in these manifestos, secular humanists believe that the problems of people must be solved by people, not by gods; that ethics and morals should be situational, not absolute; and that personal freedom and democracy is crucial for mankind. They argue that, since we are ultimately on our own, a society that suffers from a widespread belief in deities and supernatural forces undermines the ability of people to use rational thought and deliberate action to make life better. As such, secular humanists tend to be skeptical, not only of religious beliefs -- such as the existence of a personal god or of an afterlife -- but of the claims of pseudoscience, such as astrology, the paranormal, and so on. Religious humanism is an extension this philosophy, based on the observation that many people desire the trappings of religion, even if they do not think of themselves as religious in a conventional sense. Religious humanism, then, describes the practices of groups who follow the principles of secular humanism, but do so in a religious setting, with congregations, regular services, rituals, and so on. Among the religious humanist movements are Ethical Culture, Humanistic Judaism, and (to some extent) Unitarian Universalism. Web:
Memetics There is a theory that ideas can propagate biologically. So if you start getting funny thoughts in your head and you don't know where they came from, you can blame it on your parents and the theory of Memetics. Never again will you have to take responsibility for those strange ideas that keep coming to mind. Learn about memes and their effects on humanity. Web:
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Metaphysics Do you ever get the impression that there is more going on in the universe than you realize? Maybe you should jump into some metaphysics, the part of philosophy concerned with the ultimate nature of existence. If you want to get in deeper, you can try ontology (the nature of being), cosmology (the physical universe as everything), or philosophical theology (religious truth). Web:
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Objectivism Ayn Rand (1905-1982) was a Russian-born American philosopher and novelist who created the philosophy of objectivism. She summarizes: "My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievements as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute." Web:
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Philosophers In the game of life, you can't tell the philosophers without a scorecard. With these resources, I guarantee you'll be able to find information about the philosopher of your choice whenever you want. Philosophically speaking, I think that seems as if it might be a good deal -- maybe. (I'll have to think about it.) Web:
Philosophy Reference Guides Is philosophy getting you down? Is there just too much of it to handle? Well, if you find yourself confusing neoplatonism with quantification theory, and mixing up Nietzsche's theory of eternal recurrence with Socrates' doctrine of recollection, maybe it's time to spend a few hours on the Net. Once you know what you are talking about, you will have a stronger sense of identity. (Or as one sweet potato said to another, "I think, therefore I yam.") Web:
Philosophy Resources Before you draw your next hot bath, take a look at all these philosophy resources. Spend a few hours reading and then, while you are in the bath, you'll be able to close your eyes and contemplate life. With all the insight you will gain, it won't be long before you are jumping out of the bath yelling "Eureka, eureka." Web:
Philosophy Search Engines Life is stern and life is earnest, and when you need some philosophy, you need it now. I understand, so here is a search engine to help you fulfill your philosophical needs quickly and discreetly. (Note: One size does not fit all.) Web: Philosophy Talk and General Discussion When the going gets tough, the tough start talking about philosophy -- and these are the places to do it. Whatever your philosophical preference, there's room for you to talk on the Net. Just remember to be polite, and show respect for other people's point of view (unless they disagree with you). Web:
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Political Philosophy In order to maintain our societies, we organize ourselves into political systems. However, which system is the best one for a particular time and place? That's where political philosophy comes in. The deep thinkers of the ages have described and analyzed various types of political systems. Use the Net, read the ideas, and make your choice. Web:
Utilitarianism In a world full of moral ambiguities, how do we decide if something is right or wrong? Utilitarianism answers that to make such a judgment, we must look at how much pleasure or pain that something gives. The founder of utilitarianism was the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). In his book "Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation" (1789), Bentham taught that our judgment, especially with respect to government, should strive to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. His work was highly influential, and was the force behind significant nineteenth-century criminal, judicial and governmental reforms. Bentham's most important student was John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Mill was an advocate of political and social reform, who used the principles of utilitarianism to justify ideas such as increased democracy and women's rights. One of the interesting characteristics of utilitarianism is that it tends to seem either completely obvious or completely wrong. Web:
Women in Philosophy Tired of reading the same old philosophy by Kant, Descartes and Aristotle? For an intellectual change of pace, why not try Hannah Arendt, Simone de Beauvoir or Ayn Rand? Check with these Web sites (where you will find an extensive bibliography of women philosophers) or subscribe to the mailing list (which is for feminist philosophers), then go right to the nearest library and check out a book. Do not pass Go. Do not collect 200 books of male-oriented philosophy. Web:
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